After about 1850, Western forces generally were more invasive, requiring only feeble justification for going on the attack. Before the discovery of America and the sea route to Asia, the Mediterranean had been the trading and naval centre of Europe and the Near East.Italian seamen were rightly considered to be the best, and they commanded the first royally sponsored transatlantic expeditionsColumbus for Spain, John Cabot for England, and Giovanni da Verrazano for France. In order to facilitate its economic and resource exploitation, infrastructure networks were further expanded by the colonial rulers to connect both people and territories within their colonial states (ibid.). In the last half of the 18th century, all the major states of Southeast Asia were faced with crisis. Desker, Barry and Ang Chen Guan. Singapore in the Malay World: Building and Breaching Regional Bridges. An ASEAN way to security cooperation in Southeast Asia?. The Pacific Review 16, no. 5 (May 2011): 762. Jones, Michael E. Forging an ASEAN Identity: The Challenge to Construct a Shared Destiny. Contemporary Southeast Asia 26, no. Does Identity or Economic Rationality Drive Public Opinion on European Integration? PS: Political Science and Politics 37, no. There is perhaps a reason for this. Yoshimatsu, Hidetaka. As Rodolfo C. Severino notes, the Socio-Cultural Community was apparently brought in almost as an afterthought, at the Philippines suggestion, in the interest of rounding out the concept of a community (Severino 2007: 17-24) . To reverse this, ASEAN must quickly shed its image as an exclusive club for the elite and maximize public participation if it wishes to build a genuine ASEAN community. Farish Noor puts it succinctly: Herein lies the fundamental existential challenge of ASEAN: making ASEAN deeply felt (we-feeling) and deeply owned (ours-feeling) by ASEAN peoples who have a deep sense of ASEAN commonality (we are in this together). (Noor 2015). This brought rapid changes to the physical and human landscape and coupled Southeast Asia to a new worldwide capitalist system. Southeast Asia was to be re-modelled as an economic space primarily ruled by the logics of rationalism and instrumentalism. To this end, ASEAN political elites have embarked on a project to build an integrated ASEAN Community anchored on a collective ASEAN identity. In those scenarios, member states that are keen to maintain a close political and economic linkage with China are reluctant to agree on a common stance that is beneficial to the region out of fear that it may risk their diplomatic relations with China (Yoshimatsu 2012). At its formation, none of the member states had envisioned the creation of any collective community that will require them to give up parts of their sovereignty (ibid.). Chinas Continuous Dam building on the Mekong River. Journal of Contemporary Asia 42, no. What's more, their level of . The 1960's national liberation movement largely ended the colonial era but the centuries of foreign control left their mark on many developing countries. Effects of the discoveries and empires. A second difference between Western and Japanese colonialism was in the opportunities the occupation provided the new educated elite. Hirschman, Charles. Lubis, Abdur-Razzaq. Tan, Chee-Beng. Unrestricted by any form of political borders or allegiance to a single locality, Southeast Asians constantly moved across the region. Koi Kye Lee. Post-colonial states, ethnic minorities and separatist conflicts: case studies from Southeast and South Asia. Ethnic & Racial Studies 34, no. Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia. Steinberg, David Joel. This is also evident that from the fact that the ASEAN Economic Community remains the most well-funded pillar of ASEAN Vision 2020 while the least attention and resources are directed to the ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community pillar. The French colonisation of Vietnam began in earnest in the 1880s and lasted six decades. As such, a ground-up approach may offer greater prospects in the creation of a sentiment of shared belonging and collective regional identity. ASEAN and evolving power relations in East Asia: strategies and constraints. Contemporary Politics 18, no. See South China Sea dispute; Malaysia-Singapore dispute over the Pedra Blanca/Pulau Batu Puteh; Malaysia-Indonesia dispute over the Sipadan and Litigan Islands.Jones and Smith (2002) would not have continued to dismiss ASEAN community as an imitation community with no substance. The Edinburgh Annual Register for 1824. Under such a shared, borderless geographical space, different ethnic groups and polities intersected and commingled to create extensive, regularized patterns of interactions. For instance, Acharyas work on normative regionalism argues that a collective identity has been successfully constructed among the political elites of Southeast Asian states through intense interaction and socialization (Acharya 2002). Intra-regional people-to-people interaction at the ground level should therefore be highly encouraged. But the chapter is not unremittingly negative. Despite its nature as a work of fiction, it is based on historical realities and inform us on how identities were understood and framed as transient and dynamic during the pre-colonial era. There was a clear absence of any rigid form of political and ethnic loyalties in the pre-colonial world of Southeast Asia. Historical works have shown that forms of regional linkages had already existed prior to the advent of colonialism (Steinberg 1971). Some of the negative impacts that are associated with colonization include; degradation of natural resources, capitalist, urbanization, introduction of foreign diseases to livestock and humans. Moorthy, Ravichandran and Guido Benny. While colonialism brought some positive changes, such as the introduction of new ideas and technologies, it also had negative consequences, such as economic inequality and political instability. Political instability. From the 16th century until the 20th century, the major colonizers in Southeast Asia were European powers, including the British, French, Spanish, Dutch, and Portuguese. Even Gia Long, whose conscience and circumstance both demanded that he give special attention to reviving the classical Confucian past, quietly incorporated selected Western and Tay Son ideas in his government. Nor were the changes ineffectual, for by 1820 the large mainland states stood at the height of their powers. Jones, Catherine. A study by Azmawati and Quayle (2017) shows that even at the university level, students in Southeast Asia are often very unfamiliar with the organization, goals and progress of the ASEAN Community. Singapore: World Scientific, 2015. The negative effects stated in Documents 2 and 7 shows how bitter sweet the effect of imperialism . over colonialism. A possible explanation for this absence of identification with the ASEAN identity is that the people of Southeast Asia continue to be trapped in a language game inherited from the colonial era which has defined national identities based on the notion of exclusivity and a worldview that accepts modern state boundaries as a given political reality. Thus, their networking should be promoted and governments should leverage on their experiences to develop social spaces that promote greater people-to-people interaction and cultural exchanges. From this point onwards, a subject under the British colonial rule would only be allowed to travel within the dominions of the British Empire (A Collection of Statutes Relating to the East India Company 1810). Association of Southeast Asian Nation. Most of the new intellectual elite were only vaguely aware of these sentiments, which in any case frequently made them uneasy; in a sense they, too, were foreigners. It is also likely that European efforts to choke and redirect the regions trade had already done much to destroy the general prosperity that trade previously had provided, though Europeans were neither ubiquitous nor in a position to rule, even in Java. Any form of regional community to the realist would only exist in form but not in essence. Integration into the global economy. A true ASEAN community cannot be built based on elite-level interactions and belief alone. Though they failed in their objectives, these revolts made it clear that among the masses lay considerable dissatisfaction and, therefore, radical potential. However, the responses from the regions elite were the most disconcerting. Acharya argues that this is an authentic identity that the ASEAN ruling elite has consciously constructed and build-on since ASEANs establishment and has resulted in a cognitive imagining of Southeast Asia as a genuine ASEAN community (ibid.). Communication was difficult, particularly when it came to explaining such concepts as nationalism and modernization. 2 (June 2007): 179-195. Southeast AsiaEconomic conditions20th century. Impacts. A revamp of history education in the region is critical in such a venture. 4 (January 2000): 441-480. The institution of kingship itself seemed to become more dynamic and intimately involved in the direction of the state. Britain moved into Hong Kong in 1842, into Burma in 1886, and into Kowloon in 1898. It was also the case that, both because the war was going against them and because the response to other approaches was unenthusiastic, the Japanese were compelled before long to utilize local nationalism in their mobilization campaigns, again something quite impossible under European rule. Virtually all of the mobilization efforts, however, were based on Japanese models, and the new rulers were frustrated to discover that Southeast Asians did not behave in the same fashion as Japanese. Secondly, the strategic location of ASEAN states means that it will always remain an area of contestation between external major powers (Prasetyono 2007: 109-116; Steinberg 1971). From the earliest days of imperialism, colonizers have had detrimental effects on the ecosystems that they invaded. 2 (May 2015): 259-280. The lack of regional cohesion among the ASEAN member states to formulate a coordinated and coherent response against China both in the South China Sea dispute and the Lancang-Mekong hydropower dam project are further examples of how national interest continues to be prioritized over regional interest (Biba 2012). Henceforth, national identities are framed in the context of oppositional dialectics which highlights the uniqueness of their nation-states vis--vis their external neighbors; a case of us versus them (Noor 2015). . the grand design of European colonialism in Asia and on some of its consequences. 1 (April 2012): 1-53. Rana Mitter, is Professor of the History and Politics of Modern China at Oxford University. Europe controlled most of Southeast Asia by the 1890s. The major colonizers of Southeast Asia were Europeans, Japanese and the U.S. All in all, there were seven colonial powers in Southeast Asia: Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, Great Britain, France, the United States, and Japan. Upon arriving at the Philippines, friars and priests started converting the natives to Christians. 6 (November/December 2012): 1043-1066. "What impact did Western imperialism and colonialism have on Asia" . 1 (Summer 2007): 148-184. From neighbourhood watch group to community? How did imperialism affect Latin America? Japanese rule, indeed, had destroyed whatever remained of the mystique of Western supremacy, but the war also had ruined any chances that it might be replaced with a Japanese mystique. These would lay the groundwork for political identities to be based on exclusivity and complicate the quest for nation-building and regionalism after independence was achieved by the colonial states. Southeast Asia was changed in an evolutionary, rather than revolutionary, way by the Japanese occupation. Azmawati, Dian and Linda Quayle. Colonialism also introduced modern medicine and education to many regions of the globe. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2016. Examples are aplenty such as in the case of the sacking of the Thai embassy in Cambodia in 2003 or the oft-repeated verbal attacks made by Malaysia politicians on Singapore. All this deteriorated the mental as well as physical freedom and conditions of the colonized . Sim, Royston. Siam, which through a combination of circumstance and the wise leadership of Mongkut (ruled 185168) and Chulalongkorn (18681910) avoided Western rule, nevertheless was compelled to adopt policies similar to, and often even modeled on, those of the colonial powers in order to survive. As a result, there was never any real interest in the creation of the we-feeling type of community to begin with. Production of tin, oil, rubber, sugar, rice, tobacco, coffee, tea, and other commodities burgeoned, driven by both government and private activity. Indian nationalism is rising, and it is a . 3 (December 2004): 416-433. The formation of a collective identity and interest has to be shaped by intensive interaction at the ground level. Forming a security community: lesson from ASEAN. International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 7, no. India provides a cautionary tale. . They must be made aware of the artificiality of modern-day national boundaries and accept that elements of commonality in history, culture, ethnicity and geographies exists in the region. The great political and social structures of the classical states had begun to decay, and, although the reasons for this disintegration are not altogether clear, the expanded size of the states, the greater complexity of their societies, and the failure of older institutions to cope with change all must have played a part. Still, despite Western disbelief, there was considerable resentment of colonial rule at the lower levels of society. ASEANs One Identity and One Community: A Slogan or a Reality? Yale Journal of International Affairs, March 14, 2016. Japan-Singapore Relations and Shinzo Abe These dialectics have assisted the regions political elite in their repeated attempts at playing up national sentiments against neighbouring countries in order to galvanize its populace for political gains. _____________. Agence France-Presse. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Human Groups and Social Categories: Studies in Social Psychology. Tadem, Eduardo C. New Perspectives on Civil Society Engagement with ASEAN. Heinrich Bll Stiftung. In essence, ASEAN is an attempt by political elites to re-imagine the region in form but not in substance. 1. From the 1500s to the mid-1940s, colonialism was imposed over Southeast Asia. _____________. Emmerson, Donald K. Security, Community, and Democracy in Southeast Asia: Analyzing ASEAN. Japanese Journal of Political Science 6, no. This attitude destroyed traditional beliefs and . ASEANs imitation community. Orbis: A Journal of World Affairs 46, no. They neglect the possible influence of ideational elements on state behavior which is critical to the formation of any collective community. In an attempt to construct a novel explanation for the failure of continuing efforts in the creation of a shared ASEAN Community and collective ASEAN Identity as espoused in the One Vision, One Identity, One Community motto of ASEAN, this article will explore the complex interaction of historical forces that has led to the creation of mental barriers which acts as impediments to the formation of a collective ASEAN identity. One positive way it affected a population was it increased a people 's ability to prosper. The French justified their imperialism with a 'civilising mission', a pledge to develop backward nations. The first phase of European colonisation of Southeast Asia took place throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. During the colonization period in Asia, Spain trying to find a new route to the Spice Islands, Ferdinand Magellan disembarked upon the Philippines on March 16, 1561. Community and power in Southeast Asias regional order. The Pacific Review 18, no. Therefore, the sense of a common regional identity that has been argued to exist at the elite level by Acharya has to be broadened to include the ordinary people of ASEAN. See Wittgenstein, Ludwig. Despite their stated intention, it was most probably never the intent of the political elites to build a regional project that erodes national boundaries and imagine itself as a region of collective past, present and future. See Abdur-Razzaq Lubis, Mandailing-Batak-Malay: A People Defined and Divided, in. A map of Asia by Sebastian Munster dated in 1598 further illustrate the absence of territorial boundaries across the entire Southeast Asia region and depicted the region as a continuum in which its inhabitants perceived it as a shared common space (Munster 1598). Regional integration is therefore mainly seen as a mean to allow the nation-state of Southeast Asia to obtain political and economic objectives that it is unable to achieve alone (Kim 2011). While these measures contributed to a greater sense of commonality and collective identity within the colonial states and allow its inhabitants to imagine themselves as part of an imagined community, they were confined within the boundaries drawn-up by their colonial masters. For example, the legacy of US colonialism and neocolonialism is very much . However, it is not the intention of this article to argue for the utility and benefits for the creation of a shared ASEAN Community and collective ASEAN identity. Neo-colonialism is not just any domination, but it is an iniquitous economic relationship wherein a country uses the natural resources of another . This became a concrete political agenda for ASEAN leaders when the ASEAN Concord II was adopted on 7 October 2003 with the aim to establish a robust ASEAN Community by 2020. A few works by Hund (2010) and Narine (2004) have posited the persistence of a level of uncertainty among the political elites of ASEAN in their domestic political legitimacy as a key variable in their reluctance to create a unified ASEAN community and collective ASEAN identity. ASEAN centrality in these key regional platforms has afforded it with a voice at the global level (Vejjajiva 2017: 89-102). While in general terms this conclusion is justified, it leaves open the . In their view, Southeast Asia is a modern, artificial construct that has no essentialist-reductivist basis to it and any attempts at regional identity building would only flounder in the face of intra-regional diversity and conflicts (Kurlantzick 2012). As Europeans moved beyond exploration and into colonization of the Americas, they brought changes to virtually every aspect of the land and its people, from trade and hunting to warfare and personal property. Berlin: Lit Verlag, 2010. As this article has shown, this need for ASEAN to re-define itself emanates from the political elites of ASEAN themselves. Despite the immense amount of scholarly work carried out on ASEAN, existing literature seems unable to provide a satisfactory answer to this predicament. The former colonial masters continued to impose economic, political, cultural and other pressures to control or influence their former colonies. Theorizing ASEAN Integration. Asian Perspective 35, no. Vietnam, Indonesia, Cambodia, and Laos all have civil law systems. Towards Community Formation in Southeast Asia? Speaking on behalf of Secretary-General Antnio Guterres, he also reminded the participants of the challenges which face the so-called Non-Self . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015. Jakarta: Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia, 2017. (Jones and Smith 2002). Lee Jun Jie . Often dismissed as pseudo-intellectuals by the Western colonial governments and prevented from obtaining any real stake in the state, the new intellectuals under the Japanese were accorded positions of real (though not unlimited or unsupervised) authority. In many areas there also was a deep-seated hatred of control by foreigners, whether they be the Europeans themselves or the Chinese, Indians, or others who were perceived as creatures of their rule. ASEAN has also gone on to achieve some success in regional economic integration projects with a number of agreements signed in principle on the setting up of free trade zones, abolishment of tariffs, product standards and conformity (Severino 2007: 17-24). Japanese-Thai Relations through Two Coups: Back to Business A Modern History of SoutheastAsia: Decolonization, Nationalism and Separatism. Singapore: S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies, 2007. 3 (September 2009), 369-386. ASEAN is ultimately made up of ten diverse countries with very different political system, geography, culture, religion, economy and vulnerabilities (Roberts 2011). Their primary concerns were extending bureaucratic control and creating the conditions for success in a capitalist world economy; the chief necessity was stability or, as the Dutch called it, rust en orde (tranquility and order). Kei Koga, Associate Professor, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Thailand In the mental map of Southeast Asians, the lines of division that had been drawn in the boardrooms of the colonial companies have become both a political and social reality. The various imperialist powers set up industries in their colonies to make profits and thus paved the way for the industrialization of the colonies. In the 1930s, however, a series of anticolonial revolts took place in Burma, Vietnam, and the Philippines. 3 (September 2013): 399-423. The roots for regionalism has always been shallow and are mainly driven by pragmatic political and economic considerations. In the survey carried out by Christopher B. Roberts in 2007, while 37.5% of the grassroots respondents said that they could trust all the countries in Southeast Asia to be good neighbours, 36.1% were unsure and 26.4% answered no to the question. National histories across the region are often written and retold in isolation, often with their independence struggle as the pre-given starting point and the respective nation-states as the main actor in the foreground (Noor 2017: 9-15). It was under such a fluid environment that the identities of pre-colonial Southeast Asians were multi-faceted and organic. Regional integration is largely seen as a mean to allow its respective member states to obtain greater political and economic clout through resources pooling wherever mutual, practical benefit exists so as to secure their national sovereignty (Kim 2011). . Web. Against such a precarious environment, the political leaders in Southeast Asia have become aware that they can no longer pursue their national interests and socio-economic aspirations independently (Prasetyono 2007: 109-116). Collective Identity Formation in Asian Regionalism: ASEAN Identity and the Construction of the Asia-Pacific Regional Order. Paper presented at Research Committee Sessions (RC06) Theorising the Role of Identity in the Unfolding of Regionalism: Comparative Perspectives, International Political Science Association. Indochina is a region that today we would consider as Southeast Asia, comprised of Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam (Indochina, 2001). Initially founded by the five member-states of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand on 8 August 1967, it has since expanded to include Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar and Cambodia and now encompasses 10 countries of differing ethnicities, political systems, cultures . Ethnic Identities and National Identities: Some Examples from Malaysia. Identities 6, no. 3 (July-Sept 2011): 407-435. For ASEAN to develop a collective identity that will lead to the formation of a genuine, shared ASEAN community, a significant mental leap must be taken by the citizens of ASEAN to internalize the logic of overlapping identities and re-imagine the region. 1 (1999): 77-88.Vejjajiva, Abhisit. These cultural contestations exist precisely because genuine cultural linkages and interactions that transcend modern day national boundaries have existed prior to colonialism. Increased political stability. As a starting point, the citizens of ASEAN will need to depart from their present understanding of the regions history, accept the artificiality of the modern-day national boundaries and develop a greater awareness of the close historical and cultural linkages that exist among them. Since then, the ASEAN leaders have repeatedly acknowledged the necessity in fostering a sentiment of we feeling and shared belonging that will inform efforts towards regionalism and facilitate greater regional cooperation. For instance, the Indonesians, Malaysians and Singaporeans have made repeated attempts to claim ownership over the shared heritage of the textile art of batik, shadow puppet theatre termed as the wayang kulit and traditional musical instruments such as the gamelan and angklung (Chong 2012). Aguilar Jr, Filomeno. S. Rajaratnam School of InternationalStudies, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 22 February 2012. These challenges would require ASEAN member states to re-orientate their course of actions for closer cooperation in order to act as a counterweight against these external powers attempting to influence events in the region and this ability is invariably tied to the degree of cohesion within ASEAN (Yoshimatsu 2012). They were backed by the enormous economic resources of the industrialized Western nations, and by the early 20th century, having effectively disarmed the indigenous societies, they possessed a monopoly on the means of violence. 4 They argue that an inherent tension between state sovereignty and regionalism exists as political elites are more concerned with the building of a stable, legitimate sovereign state as a vital prerequisite before the building of a strong regional community and identity (Hund 2010). However, actions by ASEAN member states that acts in contradictions to the fulfillment of such goals are aplenty. Despite these efforts, ASEAN has thus far failed to develop a degree of ASEAN consciousness in both its bureaucrats and citizens that will nudge them to think of themselves as a member of the wider ASEAN body (Denoon and Colbert 1998-1999). Jakarta: Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia, 2017. Thus, ASEANs main function was to assist the nascent nation-states in promoting, enhancing and preserving the political legitimacy of its government and safeguarding them from any external threats that may de-stabilize their sovereignty (Noor 2017, 9-15). Hikayat Hang Tuah. Most literature focuses on the security and economic dimension of ASEAN, which despite its importance, is inadequate in the discussion of a formation of a genuine regional community anchored on a collective identity. Does public opinion count? David M. Malitz, Senior Research Fellow, DIJ, Japan, Vietnam As explained, the creation of an ASEAN community and a collective ASEAN identity still remains an unfulfilled wish. Here we may consider the story of Hang Tuah who did not see any contradictions with introducing himself as both a subject-servant of the Sultan of Melaka and an emissary of Raja Keling of Kalinga at the same time (Ahmad 1965). Regional Security in Southeast Asia: Beyond the ASEAN Way. This led to the adoption of the motto, One Vision, One Identity, One Community, at the eleventh ASEAN Summit in December 2005, which signaled a realization by the ASEAN political leaders that a true ASEAN community must be a community of its people based on common ASEAN values and a collective ASEAN identity. The great political and social structures of the classical states had begun to decay, and, although the reasons for this disintegration are not altogether clear, the expanded size of the states, the greater complexity of their societies, and the . The Javanese culture and society of earlier days was no longer serviceable, and court intellectuals sought to find a solution in both a revitalization of the past and a clear-eyed examination of the present. Sense of community: A definition and theory. Journal of Community Psychology 14, no. From its roots as an inward-looking multilateral regional arrangement, ASEAN has since expanded its geographical scope to engage with external powers in the Asia Pacific region through the creation of modalities such as the ASEAN Regional Forum in 1994, ASEAN Plus Three (China, Japan and Republic of Korea) in 1997 and East Asia Summit in 2005 (Prasetyono 2007: 109-116). June 25, 1997 10:40 pm ET . In the nineteenth century, the contradiction between . More peaceful Western encroachments on local sovereignty also occurred until the 1920s. Is an ASEAN Community Achievable? Asian Survey 52, no. The idea of opposing Dutch rule, furthermore, was not abandoned entirely, and it was only the devastating Java War (182530) that finally tamed the Javanese elite and, oddly enough, left the Dutch to determine the final shape of Javanese culture until the mid-20th century. The chief problem facing the new intellectuals lay in reaching and influencing the wider population. 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